INTRODUCTION
Geese are an important livestock commodity for Asian villagers since most of them are small farmers. The purpose of raising geese in Asian countries is not only to produce eggs and meat but also to use them as guard animals and to help control the growth of wild grass and weeds. For Indonesian farmers, for example, keeping geese is more than just a way of increasing family income.
The genetic capacity of Asian geese as either meat or egg producers is generally accepted as less than that of most modern breeds found in Europe. In addition, since most farmers cannot afford to buy commercial complete rations for their geese, goose raising is frequently done as a backyard farming activity using cheap and locally available feedstuffs, including grass. Traditionally, geese in Asia are fed rice bran, or mixture of rice bran and sago which is produced from the rumbia tree (a kind of palm tree) which grows around the homes. Even though Asian goose production technology is not well developed, goose production in Asia is increasingly popular and has become accepted as a recognized type of livestock production.
The genetic capacity of Asian geese as either meat or egg producers is generally accepted as less than that of most modern breeds found in Europe. In addition, since most farmers cannot afford to buy commercial complete rations for their geese, goose raising is frequently done as a backyard farming activity using cheap and locally available feedstuffs, including grass. Traditionally, geese in Asia are fed rice bran, or mixture of rice bran and sago which is produced from the rumbia tree (a kind of palm tree) which grows around the homes. Even though Asian goose production technology is not well developed, goose production in Asia is increasingly popular and has become accepted as a recognized type of livestock production.
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Asian geese came from central Asia, Japan and China. The term ‘Asian geese’, or ‘Swan geese’, including the geese in Indonesia, originated from Anser cygnoides ferus domestica but the size of goose populations in Asia have not been accurately determined because of the difficulty of collecting data. This is largely due to the goose production systems utilized and the problems created by the distances involved. There are, however, two main varieties of Asian geese (Anser Cygenoides): a brown-gray variety and the white variety. Each type of goose has specific characteristics.
Asian geese have a lighter body weight than European geese (Anser anser) and they require wet areas for feeding as they often find their food at the base of water plants or in their roots (Figure 1). They also have a characteristic knob at the base of their bill. Male Asian geese have a larger knob (Figure 2) than females (Figure 3) and older males have a larger knob than younger males. This distinctive knob starts to develop at 4-6 months of age. In addition, the cry of the Asian goose is loud and resembles a trumpet, with the female having a harder and hoarser cry than the male. They like to swim and dive for insects in the water. Asian geese are also temperamental and will attack their enemies, a characteristic that sometimes makes them difficult to raise together with European geese.
Asian geese have a lighter body weight than European geese (Anser anser) and they require wet areas for feeding as they often find their food at the base of water plants or in their roots (Figure 1). They also have a characteristic knob at the base of their bill. Male Asian geese have a larger knob (Figure 2) than females (Figure 3) and older males have a larger knob than younger males. This distinctive knob starts to develop at 4-6 months of age. In addition, the cry of the Asian goose is loud and resembles a trumpet, with the female having a harder and hoarser cry than the male. They like to swim and dive for insects in the water. Asian geese are also temperamental and will attack their enemies, a characteristic that sometimes makes them difficult to raise together with European geese.
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| FIGURE 1. Asian geese grazing on weeds (Source: Yuwanta, 1999) |
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| FIGURE 2. A male Asian goose (Anser cygenoides) (Source: Yuwanta, 1999) |
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| FIGURE 3. A female Asian goose (Anser cygenoide) (Source: Yuwanta, 1999) |
In most of the developing countries in Asia, goose raising technology is not very well-developed and only a few farmers in Taiwan, Japan and China are raising geese intensively.
Developing geese husbandry is advantageous because geese have:
- a fast growth rate during the starting and growing periods;
- a high feed efficiency during the fattening period;
- a low feed conversion ratio;
- the capacity to effectively utilize rations with low levels of crude protein;
- an ability to digest forages and to obtain them by grazing on pasture;
- a strong flocking tendency;
- minimum shelter requirements and only at night;
- a high resistance to disease.
The disadvantages of raising geese are:
- their low reproductive rate;
- their season-dependent reproduction;
- the fact that breeding couples are not stable within a group;
- their tendency to form groups within a flock.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The Asian goose is a prolific species but with a relatively small body size. Its main characteristics are its plump, compact body and its active behaviour. Its back is reasonably short, broad, flat and sloping to give its characteristic upright carriage with a well-rounded and plump breast, which is carried high. The wings are large, strong, held high, and carried closely to the body. Its stern is well-rounded, with a well-developed paunch and the tail is closely feathered and carried well out.
Its medium sized head is well-proportioned and the bill, stout at its base, is symmetrical and also of medium size. The knob is large, rounded and prominent and the eyes are bold. It has a long neck, carried upright and gracefully arched. Its legs are relatively short, the shanks are strong and of medium length, and the toes are straight, well spread and webbed.
The white Asian goose has blue eyes with orange-yellow bill, knob, legs,and feet. The Asian brown-gray goose has a dark russet brown head with a fawn face up to the demarcation line above the eyes. The face has a well-defined white band or line from the top of the head down to the face. The neck is fawn with a prominent dark russet brown stripe running down the middle of back of the neck for its entire length. The back is russet brown. The breast is grayish fawn except for the lower abdomen where it becomes lighter. The thigh is russet in colour and each feather is edged with a lighter shade of grayish fawn, almost white. The wing bow and coverts are a medium russet brown, and each feather is laced with a lighter grayish fawn edging, approaching white. The flight feathers are a russet brown.
The stern, paunch and tail are a lighter shade of grayish fawn, almost white while the tail feathers have a broad band of russet brown and a light edging. In both sexes the bill is black or dark slate, the knob is dark slate, the eyes are brown and the legs and feet are orange. Body weight of the Asian goose varies between 5.5 kg for males and 4.5 kg for females. Egg production varies from 15-87 eggs per female per year. Percent fertility and percent hatch are approximately 86 percent and 72 percent respectively. A female Asian goose produces on average 28 goslings per year. For breeding a sex ratio of one male to 5-8 females is recommended.
Its medium sized head is well-proportioned and the bill, stout at its base, is symmetrical and also of medium size. The knob is large, rounded and prominent and the eyes are bold. It has a long neck, carried upright and gracefully arched. Its legs are relatively short, the shanks are strong and of medium length, and the toes are straight, well spread and webbed.
The white Asian goose has blue eyes with orange-yellow bill, knob, legs,and feet. The Asian brown-gray goose has a dark russet brown head with a fawn face up to the demarcation line above the eyes. The face has a well-defined white band or line from the top of the head down to the face. The neck is fawn with a prominent dark russet brown stripe running down the middle of back of the neck for its entire length. The back is russet brown. The breast is grayish fawn except for the lower abdomen where it becomes lighter. The thigh is russet in colour and each feather is edged with a lighter shade of grayish fawn, almost white. The wing bow and coverts are a medium russet brown, and each feather is laced with a lighter grayish fawn edging, approaching white. The flight feathers are a russet brown.
The stern, paunch and tail are a lighter shade of grayish fawn, almost white while the tail feathers have a broad band of russet brown and a light edging. In both sexes the bill is black or dark slate, the knob is dark slate, the eyes are brown and the legs and feet are orange. Body weight of the Asian goose varies between 5.5 kg for males and 4.5 kg for females. Egg production varies from 15-87 eggs per female per year. Percent fertility and percent hatch are approximately 86 percent and 72 percent respectively. A female Asian goose produces on average 28 goslings per year. For breeding a sex ratio of one male to 5-8 females is recommended.
MANAGEMENT OF ASIAN GEESE
Asian geese are usually raised under poor management conditions using a backyard scavenging system with a basin or pool for swimming. Little care is given to either their feed or their feeding system. Consequently, stress related problems such as low levels of production and reproduction are often encountered, especially since birds are more easily stressed in tropical countries. Good management and husbandry are therefore very important.
Housing design plays an important role not only in the reduction of stress but also in improving both the level of production and reproduction. Traditional housing for geese is very simple and is often built in a fenced back yard. Such housing can be built using bamboo and other inexpensive materials. It normally consists of a roof with ridge ventilation and a narrow timber framed construction with low side walls. This design, used by many farmers, allows for the practice of naturally integrated waterfowl-fish production systems. Borders of irises are sometimes planted and these grow into permanent fences. The fenced backyards are divided into several compartments so that the young growing geese can be separated from the adults. Each compartment is provided with feeders, drinkers, shelter and an open space in which the geese can scavenge.
Housing design plays an important role not only in the reduction of stress but also in improving both the level of production and reproduction. Traditional housing for geese is very simple and is often built in a fenced back yard. Such housing can be built using bamboo and other inexpensive materials. It normally consists of a roof with ridge ventilation and a narrow timber framed construction with low side walls. This design, used by many farmers, allows for the practice of naturally integrated waterfowl-fish production systems. Borders of irises are sometimes planted and these grow into permanent fences. The fenced backyards are divided into several compartments so that the young growing geese can be separated from the adults. Each compartment is provided with feeders, drinkers, shelter and an open space in which the geese can scavenge.
The raising of Asian geese can be divided into three phases:
- starter (one day old to 4 weeks of age);
- grower (from 4-36 weeks of age);
- layer (from 36 weeks to 4 years of age).
During the brooding or starter phase the young goslings need artificial heating until four weeks of age. With natural brooding one female is able to raise 20 goslings. Under the traditional management system, the type of housing and its construction determines the ease with which the geese can be managed, especially when raising goslings. They must be grown with a heat source for brooding and provided with the essential requirements for growing goslings. They can be raised either in pens with litter floors, pens with slatted floors or in battery cages. In Asia, the heat supply for the brooding period is provided from a variety of sources such as kerosene lamps, kerosene heaters or electric bulbs. Other fuel sources can include wood, coal and rice hulls.
After the brooding stage, the goslings are transferred to a larger area with more floor space per bird without an additional heat source. In general, Asian farmers use the same poultry house for both brooding and growing. Geese can be grown in a wide variety of houses. When geese are grown in a system using both a poultry house and a yard, they need more land and a water basin or pool. For good results with this system, the poultry house must provide at least one square metre for every eight geese. It must also be remembered that under tropical conditions the litter floor can become very warm during certain seasons of the year.
Like the growing house, a laying house for geese can have either litter floors, slatted floors or a combination of both. In addition, the geese should be able to scavenge in a yard or pasture and have access to a pool or river. The recommended interior floor space is 0.5m2 per goose, 1 m2 for the pool, 10 m2 for the yard and 250 m2 of pasture per goose. The type of feeders provided will depend on the feeding system.
The feeder space requirement is 3 cm per head when the geese are fed ad libitum and 10cm per head when the geese are on a restricted feeding system. The provision of nests is very important for laying geese in the litter floor system, the slatted floor system or when a combination of the two is used. Four to seven geese can share one nest which should be 60 cm deep, 60 cm wide and 75 cm high. Trapnests are generally required for genetic selection programmes.
EGG COMPOSITION AND CARCASS QUALITY
In Asian countries goose eggs are used as a source of animal protein for human consumption but this is limited by the goose’s low level of egg production. Egg weight varies from 140-170 g, depending on the variety and the age of the geese.
TABLE 1. Physical composition of Asian geese egg (Source: Sasongko, 1990)
The proportion of yolk in goose eggs is much higher than that of chicken eggs: approximately 39 percent versus 30 percent. This characteristic of goose eggs means that they are higher in energy and that the feed requirements for the production of goose eggs are also higher than those for chicken eggs in terms of both protein and energy.
TABLE 2. Carcass composition and nutrient value for goose meat and eggs (Source: Leskanich and Noble, 1997 and Peterson, 1998 cit. Sidadolog, 1999)
TABLE 2. Carcass composition and nutrient value for goose meat and eggs (Source: Leskanich and Noble, 1997 and Peterson, 1998 cit. Sidadolog, 1999)
As can be seen from Table 2, the carcass represents 73-74 percent of live body weight. When compared with chicken carcasses, the carcasses of geese have a higher content of saturated fatty acids but a lower content of unsaturated fatty acids.
THE FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF GEESE
Like chickens, geese have complex nutritional needs. There are at least 40 essential compounds that must be present in their diet. These must be present in adequate amounts, optimal proportions and in a form that is readily available if the geese are to realize a rapid growth rate, optimal egg production, a high reproductive performance and, at the same time, achieve maximum feed efficiency.
The essential nutrients for geese are energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Energy for geese is generally expressed as kilocalories of metabolizable energy per kilogram of feed. Proper energy levels are important. Too much or too little can make a difference in the performance of geese. Protein is also an important factor in poultry feeding. The quality of the protein is determined by the balance of its amino acids. In formulating goose rations, the first nutrient to be considered is the protein level in order to be sure that the bird’s requirements are met. The levels of energy, vitamins and minerals in the ration are then adjusted by modifying the proportion of the other ingredients and adding various nutrients in a synthetic form. Vitamins are usually added to the diet in excess of the minimum requirements. For proper nutrition, the practical mineral requirements include at least 12 inorganic minerals.
Various factors determine which ingredients are used in goose rations. Cost and availability, as well as the presence of toxic substances, limit the use of some ingredients. In Asian countries, rice and corn, and especially their byproducts, are often the main ingredients used as energy sources in goose rations. Sometimes in specific regions, farmers use sago and cassava meal (manihot) as the main energy source and, as a protein source, they use copra meal (coconut meal), soybean meal or fishmeal, either singly or as a mixture. In Asia grass is fed as a supplement as it is seen as a necessary food for geese. The amount fed varies, depending on the age of the geese, their stage of production and the level of the other nutrients being fed. In traditional goose raising, kitchen byproducts are also sometimes used to formulate goose rations (Figure 5).
The scavenging management system is the main type of goose husbandry practiced in Asia. Under this system a flock of geese will consist of 4-20 birds and they will be allowed to range freely over part of the village area. The geese are kept in backyards around the farmers’ homes but are allowed access to canals, lakes and rice fields. They are fed mainly kitchen waste and other feed found in the farmyard. Their average egg production varies from 20-45 percent. Goose eggs are sold unwashed, directly from the nests by the individual farmers in traditional markets (Figure 5). This system is typical of that used by small producers. It is based on family tradition and there is usually insufficient practical and technical knowledge of nutrition with the geese being fed mainly rice grain. Such a nutritionally limited rice-based diet, together with the practice of using female geese and Muscovy ducks to hatch the eggs, invariably results in a very low reproductive rate.
Goslings are usually raised for the first 2-3 weeks in a closed building with heat provided by hurricane lamps or electric light bulbs at night. Feed and water are available at all times. The goslings are fed either a duck or broiler chicken starter diet, as a mash or as crumbles. After this brooding period, the goslings are allowed outdoors and will usually be fed diets mixed by the owners. Such diets usually consist of cooked trash fish, rice bran, broken rice, corn, soybean meal or soy sauce waste. In some areas, dry trash fish and sago meal are also used. The crude protein of such a feed is 16-18 percent .
The essential nutrients for geese are energy, protein, minerals and vitamins. Energy for geese is generally expressed as kilocalories of metabolizable energy per kilogram of feed. Proper energy levels are important. Too much or too little can make a difference in the performance of geese. Protein is also an important factor in poultry feeding. The quality of the protein is determined by the balance of its amino acids. In formulating goose rations, the first nutrient to be considered is the protein level in order to be sure that the bird’s requirements are met. The levels of energy, vitamins and minerals in the ration are then adjusted by modifying the proportion of the other ingredients and adding various nutrients in a synthetic form. Vitamins are usually added to the diet in excess of the minimum requirements. For proper nutrition, the practical mineral requirements include at least 12 inorganic minerals.
Various factors determine which ingredients are used in goose rations. Cost and availability, as well as the presence of toxic substances, limit the use of some ingredients. In Asian countries, rice and corn, and especially their byproducts, are often the main ingredients used as energy sources in goose rations. Sometimes in specific regions, farmers use sago and cassava meal (manihot) as the main energy source and, as a protein source, they use copra meal (coconut meal), soybean meal or fishmeal, either singly or as a mixture. In Asia grass is fed as a supplement as it is seen as a necessary food for geese. The amount fed varies, depending on the age of the geese, their stage of production and the level of the other nutrients being fed. In traditional goose raising, kitchen byproducts are also sometimes used to formulate goose rations (Figure 5).
The scavenging management system is the main type of goose husbandry practiced in Asia. Under this system a flock of geese will consist of 4-20 birds and they will be allowed to range freely over part of the village area. The geese are kept in backyards around the farmers’ homes but are allowed access to canals, lakes and rice fields. They are fed mainly kitchen waste and other feed found in the farmyard. Their average egg production varies from 20-45 percent. Goose eggs are sold unwashed, directly from the nests by the individual farmers in traditional markets (Figure 5). This system is typical of that used by small producers. It is based on family tradition and there is usually insufficient practical and technical knowledge of nutrition with the geese being fed mainly rice grain. Such a nutritionally limited rice-based diet, together with the practice of using female geese and Muscovy ducks to hatch the eggs, invariably results in a very low reproductive rate.
Goslings are usually raised for the first 2-3 weeks in a closed building with heat provided by hurricane lamps or electric light bulbs at night. Feed and water are available at all times. The goslings are fed either a duck or broiler chicken starter diet, as a mash or as crumbles. After this brooding period, the goslings are allowed outdoors and will usually be fed diets mixed by the owners. Such diets usually consist of cooked trash fish, rice bran, broken rice, corn, soybean meal or soy sauce waste. In some areas, dry trash fish and sago meal are also used. The crude protein of such a feed is 16-18 percent .
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| FIGURE 4. A ration based on kitchen waste and bran (Source: Yuwanta, 1999) |
The ingredients for layer geese rations are similar to those described above except that seashell powder is added to supply calcium during the egg laying period. In most of Asia, modern reproductive practices for the breeder flocks have not yet been developed and genetic selection programmes are needed to improve all egg production traits, percent fertility, percent hatch, feed efficiency and percent livability if maximum profitability is to be reached. In reproduction flocks, farmers usually keep one male for every 5-8 females in order to obtain the optimal number of day old geese. For genetic selection, pedigree breeding is done by using pen matings as it needs a minimum of extra labour.
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| FIGURE 5. Goose eggs destined for market (Source: Yuwanta, 1999) |
INCUBATION OF GOOSE EGGS
Goose eggs are known to be more difficult to incubate than chicken eggs, partly because goose eggs take 30-34 days to hatch and chicken eggs only take 21 days and so there is more time for things to go wrong. But there is more to the problem than just the length of the incubation period. Incubation of waterfowl eggs, including goose eggs, require a higher percent humidity than chicken eggs need. Also, the pores of goose eggs are much larger than the pores of chicken eggs. This, combined with the fact that geese dirty their eggs more easily because of their large webbed, often wet, feet, can result in increased bacterial contamination on the outside of the egg which, because of the egg’s large pores, also enters the egg more easily. This is particularly a problem when there is a high concentration of birds that can contaminate the surrounding area.
In Asian countries the incubation practices for goose eggs are also much less developed than for chicken eggs. Two traditional incubation practices are still used by many farmers to produce goslings. The first is natural incubation by a female goose where one female usually produces only 5-7 goslings since the percent fertility and percent hatch are relatively low. The second system is artificial incubation which has two methods: traditional artificial incubation and modern artificial incubation.
Traditional artificial incubation (or the parched rice incubation technique) was developed in south China more than 2 000 years ago and spread to Laos, Vietnam and Indonesia where it is still used today. For modern artificial incubation, Asian farmers use a simple modern incubator. Farmers modify these artificial incubators to meet the requirements of each type of poultry production. There are several different makes of modern incubators and each differs in design, size, type of fuel used, humidity and temperature controls as well as various other features. They range from simple box-like incubators of cheap design and construction to large, room-sized incubators with the latest design and control features. Petroleum is frequently used to heat the small incubators since, for the traditional Asian farmer, electricity and coal are more expensive. Modern incubators are primarily used for intensive goose raising in countries such as Taiwan and Japan.
In Asian countries the incubation practices for goose eggs are also much less developed than for chicken eggs. Two traditional incubation practices are still used by many farmers to produce goslings. The first is natural incubation by a female goose where one female usually produces only 5-7 goslings since the percent fertility and percent hatch are relatively low. The second system is artificial incubation which has two methods: traditional artificial incubation and modern artificial incubation.
Traditional artificial incubation (or the parched rice incubation technique) was developed in south China more than 2 000 years ago and spread to Laos, Vietnam and Indonesia where it is still used today. For modern artificial incubation, Asian farmers use a simple modern incubator. Farmers modify these artificial incubators to meet the requirements of each type of poultry production. There are several different makes of modern incubators and each differs in design, size, type of fuel used, humidity and temperature controls as well as various other features. They range from simple box-like incubators of cheap design and construction to large, room-sized incubators with the latest design and control features. Petroleum is frequently used to heat the small incubators since, for the traditional Asian farmer, electricity and coal are more expensive. Modern incubators are primarily used for intensive goose raising in countries such as Taiwan and Japan.
GEESE FEATHER PRODUCTION
Another important reason for raising geese and ducks in Asian countries, especially in China, Taiwan, Thailand and Indonesia, is to make badminton shuttlecocks from selected goose feathers and to use the down feathers to produce duvets and insulated clothing for export. Good quality feathers are obtained from geese 100-110 days of age. These geese produce good, mature, strong down and nicely curved body feathers which can both be processed without damage. Both the age of the geese and the production method used influence the quality of feathers, especially those used to make shuttlecocks. Slaughtering at an older age markedly influences the quality of the feathers as well as the cleaning and processing required. To obtain feathers for shuttlecocks, the goose carcasses are dipped into hot water prior to hand plucking and then the selected feathers are dried on a concrete pad.
Some varieties of geese produce good feathers at 50 days of age. At this age, however, the down feathers are not mature and both their filling power and their resilience (the ability of the down to retain its original shape) is reduced and consequently their insulating value. Feathers from the rapid-growing meat varieties lose their insulating value much more quickly than those from the older, slower-growing traditional varieties. Feather production is an important aspect of the goose industry in Asia and more attention should be given to this commodity. Table 3 shows that feather production depends on the age of the geese and the frequency of plucking.
Some varieties of geese produce good feathers at 50 days of age. At this age, however, the down feathers are not mature and both their filling power and their resilience (the ability of the down to retain its original shape) is reduced and consequently their insulating value. Feathers from the rapid-growing meat varieties lose their insulating value much more quickly than those from the older, slower-growing traditional varieties. Feather production is an important aspect of the goose industry in Asia and more attention should be given to this commodity. Table 3 shows that feather production depends on the age of the geese and the frequency of plucking.
TABLE 3. Geese feather production (g/head)
DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION
There are four classes of goose disease found in Asia: those that have a genetic base, those caused by stress, those caused by infectious organisms and those due to poor management and/or malnutrition. Poor management diseases include ailments caused by physical injuries, trauma, chemicals/poisons, nutritional deficiencies and some metabolic disorders. Infectious diseases and leg inflammations are currently a problem with Asian geese. Under either intensive or extensive management systems, the high production costs and the small profit margins make it essential that profit conscious poultry producers carry out routine health and sanitation programmes geared for the prevention and control of disease.
A goose producer can lose about five percent of his young stock during the brooding and growing period and up to one percent of his mature stock can die monthly in the first year of production. This can severely affect the producers’ profit. Apart from obvious outright losses due to death, the effects of morbidity such as decreased egg production, stunting of growth, delayed sexual maturity, low percent fertility and poor percent hatch, can also cause severe economic losses.
Another problem associated with livestock production in many Asian countries is that rainy weather, flooding, high temperatures and high humidity can cause diseases to spread very rapidly. Infectious diseases (contagious) as opposed to non-infectious diseases (non-contagious) are those diseases caused by micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa and metazoan parasites. To prevent and control infectious diseases, goose farmers should take two main precautions: the first is to prevent the entry and re-entry of pathogens onto the farm. This is best accomplished by strict quarantine and isolation, together with the use of both disinfectants and prophylactic medications. The second method is to increase resistance to disease by selecting the geese carefully, providing adequate nutrition, ensuring that they have clean and comfortable housing and by following a recommended vaccination programme.
Hepatic and enteritic viruses cause the most common viral diseases in Asian geese. They are most often found in areas of high goose populations and intensive goose production. Outbreaks of bacterial diseases have become both more frequent and more serious due to the increased use of confinement housing for goose production with a decline in the use of yards and pasture. Pasturella or Avian Cholera is the most difficult bacterial disease to control and presents the biggest problem in Asia.
In Asian countries feed ingredients are often badly stored and this can contribute to mycotoxin contamination as fungi then grow in the feed ingredients and produce mycotoxins. It is difficult to prevent this as the production of mycotoxins is not only due to the handling and storage of the grains but also to agronomic practices, the composition of the ration and condition and stage of harvesting the grains. Fungi, especially the genus Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus paracitus, produce aflatoxins that can affect the liver and the heart. Goslings are highly sensitive to aflatoxin B1 and mortality can reach 95 percent. In general, good management practices can greatly help to reduce disease problems but where there is a risk of the birds contracting an infectious disease, the farmer should not hesitate to follow a recommended vaccination programme.
REFERENCES
Sasongko, H. 1990. Comparison of the physical characteristics of eggs of different birds. Report research No. GMU/PT/654/UM/01/30. Faculty of Animal Science, Gadjah Mad University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Sarwono, B. 1988. Angsa: penjaga Keamanan yang tidak rewel, Trubus 219(XIX): 70-80.
Sidadolog, J.H.P. 1999. Handout of Poultry Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Yuwanta, T. 1999. Personal Communication, Faculty of Animal Science, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
Sarwono, B. 1988. Angsa: penjaga Keamanan yang tidak rewel, Trubus 219(XIX): 70-80.
Sidadolog, J.H.P. 1999. Handout of Poultry Husbandry, Faculty of Animal Sciences, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
Yuwanta, T. 1999. Personal Communication, Faculty of Animal Science, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, 55281, Indonesia
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